Synthetic musks (SMs) are rarely included in routine monitoring programs and are typically investigated only in wastewater-impacted environments. There is limited understanding of their potential sources and transport from industrial and other urban areas. This study investigates the occurrence of SMs in urban waterways across the greater Melbourne area, Australia, by examining land-use associations. Sampling methods were also assessed by comparing grab water sample collection against trimethylpentane (TRIMPS) and Chemcatcher SDB-XC passive samplers. Surface water samples from 20 sites were extracted and analysed via solid-phase extraction and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Passive samplers detected a higher number of SMs (eight) compared to grab samples (four). Eight SMs—galaxolide, tonalide, cashmeran, celestolide, traseolide, phantolide, and musk ambrette and musk ketone—were detected in urban waterways, with SMs present at 70% of sites. No statistically significant land-use associations were found for SMs, yet distinct patterns emerged. Galaxolide reached the highest concentrations (up to 1550 ng/L) and detection frequency in wastewater- and residential- impacted areas. Tonalide and galaxolide were detected in rural site implying widespread use and possibly atmospheric transport. Cashmeran had a higher incidence of detection at residential sites, while musk ketone—internationally regulated in cosmetics—was highest in industrial areas, suggesting possible non-cosmetic sources. Polycyclic musks and nitro musks were present throughout the urban environment highlighting the need for continued monitoring and further research on their environmental distribution and impact. • Contamination of polycyclic- & nitro-musks found across the urban environment. • Treated wastewater is a significant source of synthetic musk (SMs) contamination. • Galaxolide was the highest concentration of measured SMs - linked to wastewater. • Residential & industrial areas - sources of cashmeran and musk ketone respectively. • Tonalide was more widely distributed throughout land-uses than other SMs.
Paige et al. (2026) studied this question.