First record of African Bermuda-grass (Cynodon nlemfuensis) naturalisation in Indian biodiversity hotspots and implications for invasion management

Globally, human-mediated trade, tourism, changing land-use and climate is accelerating the introduction and subsequent invasion of alien plant species, posing serious threats to native biodiversity and provision of ecosystem services. Naturalisation – sustenance of self-reproducing populations in the wild – is the crucial stage in the transition from introduction to invasion of alien species in non-native regions. Here, we report the naturalisation of African Bermuda-grass ( Cynodon nlemfuensis ) from the temperate Himalaya and tropical Western Ghats in India. This fast-growing stoloniferous grass, widely introduced for forage, is already recognized as invasive in Central America and Australia. Field surveys conducted over the last 3 decades (1995–2024) confirm its naturalization along roadside and grassland habitats in the two major Indian biodiversity hotspots. This study also clarifies its taxonomy and designates a lectotype to resolve nomenclatural confusion with related taxa. Our findings also highlight the pressing global concern of delayed detection and reporting of grass invasions. Our case study, by reporting the early stages of its invasion into both tropical and temperate zones of the country, can help in strengthening early detection and rapid response efforts for managing invasive grasses and safeguarding biodiversity from biological invasions in a developing country from Global South.