Multiple sources and student engagement in the smart classroom: the mediating role of foreign language enjoyment under control-value theory

Smart classroom environments offer enriched learning conditions for technology-enhanced foreign language learning, yet the affective mechanisms linking such environments to student engagement remain insufficiently understood. Grounded in Control-Value Theory (CVT), this study examines the psychological pathway through which smart classroom environments are associated with student engagement, with a particular focus on the mediating role of Foreign Language Enjoyment (FLE). A quantitative survey was conducted with 205 Chinese university English majors from three academic years. The study investigated the relationships among multiple sources in smart classrooms, FLE, and student engagement. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the hypothesized relationships, and mediation analysis was conducted to examine the indirect effects of FLE. The results showed that multiple sources in smart classrooms were positively associated with both FLE and student engagement. Mediation analysis further indicated that FLE substantially mediated the relationship between multiple sources and both behavioral engagement and cognitive engagement. These findings support the applicability of CVT in smart classroom contexts by showing that positive achievement emotions are closely linked to the association between environmental affordances and student engagement. The study suggests that the effectiveness of smart classroom environments depends not only on the availability of instructional support but also on their capacity to foster enjoyable learning experiences. Pedagogically, the findings highlight the importance of designing technology-enhanced learning environments that strengthen learners' sense of control, task value, and positive emotional involvement.