• Dual APTES/SDS modification improved nanofluid stability and heat transfer. • Hybrid nanofluids showed +30% thermal conductivity and −8% viscosity at ultra-low loading. • FEM linked nanoscale coating to macroscopic heat enhancement. • Graphene/APTES achieved highest thermal conductivity ratio (1.43) with stable rheology. • Interfacial engineering outperformed fluid composition effects.
Mousavi et al. (2026) studied this question.