• RSM-CCD optimized NaHCO₃–light–pH synergies for growth and carbon efficiency. • Optimized CCU induced autosporulation, boosting cell density 5.7-fold. • Tunable lipids met ASTM biodiesel and WHO nutritional standards. • Bicarbonate CCU replaces CO₂ sparging, enabling low-energy carbon deliver.
Salehipour-Bavarsad et al. (2026) studied this question.