Trust and social presence in the Metaverse: A SEM analysis of collaborative learning in multi-user virtual environments

The integration of immersive technologies, such as the Metaverse, into education has created new opportunities for collaborative learning, particularly for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners in Iran. Although virtual learning environments have gained attention, few studies have explored how social presence and trust interact to shape collaborative learning experiences in Multi-User Virtual Environments (MUVEs). This gap is especially evident in the Iranian EFL context, where cultural values and technological constraints influence learner interactions. To address this research gap, this study examined the combined influence of social presence, which refers to the sense of connection with others in a virtual space, and trust, defined as confidence in the reliability of peers and technology, on collaborative learning outcomes in the metaverse. The study collected data from 411 Iranian EFL students across various language schools using an online survey that captured perceptions of social presence, trust, and collaborative learning. Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) using the AMOS software was performed to analyze the relationships among these constructs. Quantitative results showed that social presence significantly enhanced engagement and fostered a sense of community among learners. Trust, in turn, increased students’ willingness to participate actively and share knowledge in virtual settings. These results highlight the essential roles of social presence and trust in optimizing collaborative learning in MUVEs. The findings offer practical guidance for educators and instructional designers in Iran, enabling them to develop culturally responsive virtual learning environments that enhance language instruction and student engagement.