Latest advances in neurointerface-based electrical stimulation for spinal cord injury: a review

Spinal cord injury (SCI) causes severe damage to neural pathways, leading to substantial motor and sensory deficits that drastically reduce patients’ quality of life. In recent years, electrical stimulation technologies rooted in neurointerface research have gained attention as innovative approaches to encourage neural repair and functional recovery after SCI. This article offers a detailed examination of the most recent advancements in electrical stimulation for SCI, focusing on three key areas: multimodal neuromodulation methods, novel neurointerface materials and designs, and the development of wireless and miniaturized neural stimulation devices. A special focus is placed on brain-spinal cord-machine interface (BSCMI) systems, which aim to re-establish communication between the brain and spinal circuits. The review also examines the underlying mechanisms through which electrical stimulation promotes neural plasticity and aids in functional restoration. Notably, it highlights the growing integration of electrical stimulation with other therapies, including neural stem cell transplantation, intelligent rehabilitation techniques, and AI-driven personalized treatment plans. Despite these promising developments, several technical hurdles remain. The article concludes by discussing these challenges and outlining future research directions, with the goal of offering valuable insights for clinical practice and improving outcomes for individuals with SCI. Ultimately, this analysis emphasizes the significant potential of neurointerface-based electrical stimulation in transforming SCI treatment and enhancing patient recovery.