Compounded marginalization in social media politics: How religious and gender identities shape online harassment and the cost of political engagement

This study examines the intersection of political social media use, online harassment resulting from political expression, and the perceived physical, social, and emotional costs of political engagement and how these dynamics differ across religion and gender. Using survey data in India, we find that frequent political use of social media is associated with online harassment, especially among religious minorities and most intensely among minority women. Although political social media use alone does not heighten perceived political costs, these costs increase indirectly through experiences of harassment. Further probing reveals that this indirect effect is more substantial for religious minorities, with no significant gender differences. These results highlight how online political engagement is not experienced equally, as identity-based vulnerabilities amplify the emotional and psychological burdens of political engagement. Ultimately, rather than serving as inclusive public spheres, social media platforms reproduce existing offline hierarchies, placing the heaviest burdens of visibility on marginalized groups.