Cellulose-Based Materials: A Comprehensive Review on Sustainable Extraction, Properties, and Advanced Applications

Cellulose, the most abundant natural biopolymer on Earth, has gained significant attention as a sustainable alternative to conventional petroleum-based materials due to its renewability, biodegradability, and versatile properties. This review provides a comprehensive overview of cellulose derived from diverse sources, including plant biomass, agricultural residues, microbial systems, and industrial waste streams, highlighting its potential for waste valorisation and circular economy applications. Various extraction techniques, ranging from conventional chemical methods to advanced green approaches such as enzymatic treatment, ionic liquids, and deep eutectic solvents, are critically discussed with respect to efficiency, environmental impact, and scalability. The fundamental properties of cellulose, including its hierarchical structure, mechanical strength, chemical functionality, and interaction with water, are examined in relation to its performance in different applications. In addition, modern characterization techniques such as FTIR, XRD, SEM, TEM, and thermal analysis are reviewed to provide insights into the structural and physicochemical features of cellulose. The review further explores a wide range of applications of cellulose and its derivatives, including composites, biomedical materials, water treatment systems, packaging, energy storage, and advanced nanomaterials. Despite its promising potential, challenges related to processing, cost, and large-scale implementation remain and are discussed to identify future research directions. Overall, this review emphasizes the growing importance of cellulose as a key material for sustainable development and highlights its role in advancing green technologies and innovative material solutions.