Walking with giants: exploring dispersals routes in Giraffidae

Abstract Giraffids represent one of the most iconic groups of ruminants, yet their evolutionary and biogeographic history remains only partially understood. In this study, we integrate fossil occurrence data with phylogenetic and computational approaches to reconstruct giraffid dispersal routes and range dynamics from the Miocene to the Holocene. A dataset of 198 fossil records from 31 taxa was compiled through extensive screening of PBDB and NOW entries and cross-validation with the literature. These records were assigned to six palaeogeographically justified macro areas, reflecting the major Neogene structural domains shaping Afro-Eurasian faunal exchange. Under this framework, ancestral character estimation (ACE) assigns the highest marginal probabilities origin of Giraffidae to the Balkan–Anatolian region, a pattern driven by the distribution of Late Miocene taxa but inconsistent with the earliest known occurrences in Africa and South Asia. In contrast, the BAYAREALIKE + J model of BioGeoBEARS reconstructs multi-area ancestral ranges origin spanning Africa, South Asia and the Levant–Arabian corridor, supporting a broad Afro-Asian early distribution and subsequent Middle–Late Miocene expansions into the Paratethyan and western Mediterranean realms. When combined with the fossil record, these reconstructions identify a dynamic biogeographic history characterised by an Afro-Asian early radiation, Miocene dispersal pulses into Eurasia, and a progressive Plio-Pleistocene contraction culminating in the restriction of the clade to Africa. This work highlights how integrating complementary modelling frameworks with fossil data can yield a synthetic overview of paleobiogeographic history while also identifying biases tied to gaps in the fossil record and computational tractability. Our results provide a foundation for future studies focusing on finer spatial and temporal scales of giraffid evolution.