The created and perceived political symbolism of public space: a systematic review of political graffiti in Europe using AI

Abstract Political graffiti in Europe reflects diverse political and social issues, capturing unique local perspectives; however, its cross-European patterns remain insufficiently explored. This article bridges this gap by examining how political graffiti varies across European countries and city types due to their differing social and political contexts. A systematic review was conducted, complemented by an exploration of the potential of artificial intelligence (AI) for text analysis. Despite certain limitations in current generative models, their application proved beneficial in improving research efficiency. The findings indicate that political graffiti variations are primarily influenced by structural factors: the tradition of political participation and resistance, the engagement in political dialogue through graffiti, and relevant legislation. Contextually, political graffiti is chiefly shaped by the presence of a political crisis at the time. Furthermore, the article presents and interprets key themes, such as resistance to government, international influence, gentrification, and touristification, as well as the expression of marginalised attitudes and identity formation, and examines the spatial distribution of graffiti, which is often determined by visibility near political institutions, within subcultural districts, and at symbolic sites across European cities. The article’s main contribution is the identification of two perspectives on political symbolism in urban space: first, the construction of a symbolic landscape by embedding the dominant political discourse, and second, inhabitants’ perception and interpretation of the meaning of urban space. Political graffiti links these two forms of symbolism. The article, therefore, emphasises the importance of integrating both perspectives when analysing political symbolism in urban space through graffiti.